A condition of war of “all against all”.

English philosopher Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury is referred to as the founder of the “social contract tradition”, and his 1651 book “Leviathan Or The Matter, Form And Power Of A Commonwealth Ecclesiastical And Civil” [1] regarded as originating the social contract model. That said; Hobbes’ model is an Enlightenment example of unilineal sociocultural evolutionism as it envisions a progression from the state of nature to a social contract. Hobbes describes his view of the nature of human beings in what he describes, in Part 1, Chapter 13 of “Leviathan”, “On The Natural Condition Of Mankind As Concerning Their Felicity And Misery” [2], as the “state of nature”: “During the time men live without a common power to keep them all in awe, they are in that conditions called war; and such a war, as if of every man, against every man [3]…To this war of every man against every man, this is also consequent; that nothing can be unjust [4]…Where there is no common power, there is no law, where no law, no injustice [5]…Whatsoever therefore is consequent to a time of war, where every man is enemy to every man; the same is consequent to the time, wherein men live without other security, than what their own strength, and their own invention shall furnish them withal [6].” [7]

As Hobbes himself describes in articulating the progression out of the state of nature, the solution to resolving such universal mutual warfare is to follow, as best one is able to do so unilaterally, Prussian Immanuel Kant's categorical imperative. In Section 2, “Transition From Popular Moral Philosophy To A Metaphysics Of Morals” [8], of his 1785 “Foundations Of The Metaphysics Of Morals” [9], Kant explains what he means by categorical imperative: “Do not feel forced to act, as you’re only willing to act according to your own universal laws. And that’s good. For only willful acts are universal. And that’s your maxim.” Hobbes describes the beginning of his “social contract” as one willingly relinquishing one’s own right to everything and defense at all means, doing so under the presupposition that others will follow suit.

Since the ratification of the Bill of Rights on December 15, 1791, the United States of America has had a social contract very much like the one envisioned in “Leviathan”, which we refer to as our Constitution. However, since its formation on November 17, 1871, this nation has also had an organization whose explicitly self-declared purpose is the return of America to a disquietingly Hobbesian state of war. In a 2012 speech to the New York Rifle and Pistol Association, Nation Rifle Association President James Porter said that the purpose of the NRA is “To teach and train the civilian in the use of the standard military firearm, so that when they have to fight for their country, when they’re ready to fight tyranny, they have the wherewithal and the weapons to do it.”

In Part I Chapter 14 of his “Leviathan”, entitled “Of The First And Second Natural Laws. And Of Contracts” [10], Hobbes enumerates what he refers to as the “right of nature”: “The right of nature, which writers commonly call jus natural, is the liberty each man hath, to use his own power, as he will himself, for the preservation of his own nature; that is to say, of his own life; and consequently, of doing anything, which in his own judgment, and reason, he shall conceive to be the aptest means thereunto…The sum of the right of nature, which is by all means we can do to defend ourselves.” In Part 2 Chapter 21: “Of The Liberty Of Subjects” [11], Hobbes reiterates: “A covenant not to defend myself from force by force is always void. For no man can transfer, or lay down his right, to save himself from death, wounds, and imprisonment. For the right men have by nature to protect themselves, when no one else can protect them, can by no covenant be relinquished. The right to defend ourselves is the sum of the right of nature.” Indeed, Hobbes writes in Chapter 14, existence in the state of nature makes the right to self-preservation at all costs and by any means necessary bring along with it a right to anything and everything: “Because the condition of man is a condition of war of everyone against everyone; in which case everyone is governed by his own reason; and there is nothing he can make use of, that may not be a help unto him, in preserving his life against his enemies; it followeth that in such a condition every man has a right to everything, even to one another’s body [12].” The right of everyone to everything, Hobbes explains in Chapter 11, “Of The Difference Of Manners” [13], is the causus belli in the state of nature: “If any two men desire the same thing, which nevertheless they cannot both enjoy, they become enemies; and on the way to their end, which is principally their own conservation, and sometimes their dedication only, endeavor to destroy or subdue one another…Competition of riches, honor, command, or other power, inclineth to contention, enmity, and war: because the way of one competitor, to the attaining of his desire, is to kill, subdue, supplant, or repel the other.” This desire of every man to destroy every other man is what necessitates Hobbes’ right to self-defense being inalienable, as its result is universal mutual suspicion: “A man cannot lay down the right of resisting them, that assault him by force, to take away his life [14]. Because a man cannot tell, when he seeth men proceed against him by violence whether they intend his death or not [15].”[16]

However, Article I, Section VIII of the Constitution of the United States of America states: “The Congress shall have the power To declare war, To raise and support armies, To provide and maintain a navy; To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces; To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions; To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for governing them as employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the appointment of officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress [17].”

At the January 15-18, 2013 Shooting, Hunting, Outdoor Trade Show in Las Vegas, Nevada, NRA Board of Directors member Theodore Nugent said, referring the April 19, 1775 battles in Middlesex County, Province of the Massachusetts Bay: “If you want another Concord Bridge, I got some buddies.”

On January 16th, then-President of the NRA David Keene told ABC News, referring to President of the United States of America Barack Obama, that “All bets are off when the President really wants to go to war with you”, and said of the NRA: “We’re going to be there and we’re going to fight it.” Article II, Section II, Clause I of the United States Constitution reads: “The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the States, when called into service of the United States.”

In a January 30th United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary hearing, when asked by Senator Richard Durbin from Illinois if he agreed with the point of view that “We need the firepower and the ability to protect ourselves from our government, from the police, if they knock on your doors we need to fight back”, NRA Executive Vice President Wayne LaPierre answered: “Without a doubt.”

Article III, Section III of the Constitution states: “Treason against the United States shall consist in levying war against them.” In Chapter 13, Hobbes asserts that “War consisteth not in battle only, or the act of fighting; but in a tract of time, wherein the will to contend by battle is sufficiently known: and therefore the notion of time, is to be considered in the nature of war [18]…So the nature of war, consisteth not in the actual fighting; but in the known disposition thereto, during all the time there is no assurance to the contrary.”[19]

1. Oregon State University: http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/texts/hobbes/leviathan-contents.html
   University of Adelaide: http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/h/hobbes/thomas/index.html
2. University of Adelaide: http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/h/hobbes/thomas/h68l/complete.html
3. Oregon State University: http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/texts/hobbes/leviathan-c.html
   Columbia University: http://www.columbia.edu/cu/tat/core/hobbes.htm
4. University of Idaho: http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/jcanders/Ethics/hobbesoverhead.htm
5. University of Adelaide: http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/h/hobbes/thomas/h68l/chapter13.html
   University of West Georgia: http://www.westga.edu/~rlane/law/lecture02_hobbes.html
   Drexel University: http://www.pages.drexel.edu/~cp28/hobbes.htm
   University of Wisconsin-Madison: http://faculty.history.wisc.edu/sommerville/367/367-092.htm
6. Texas Wesleyan University: http://faculty.txwes.edu/csmeller/human-prospect/ProData09/01ModCulMatrix/ModWRTs/Hobbes1651LevSEL.htm
   University of South Alabama: http://www.southalabama.edu/history/faculty/faust/Hobbes.htm
7. Oregon State University: http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/texts/hobbes/leviathan-c.html
   Columbia University: http://www.columbia.edu/cu/tat/core/hobbes.htm
8. University of San Diego: http://ethics.sandiego.edu/Books/Kant/MM/Part2.html University of
   Rhode Island: http://www.uri.edu/personal/szunjic/philos/grwork.htm
   Rockhurst University: http://cte.rockhurst.edu/s/945/images/editor_documents/content/John%20F.%20Morris,%20Ph.D.%20%20%20%20%20%20%20Associate%20Professor%20of%20Philoso/Study%20Guide%20for%20Kant.pdf
9. Iowa State University: http://www.public.iastate.edu/~jwcwolf/Papers/KantExcerpt.htm
10. Oregon State University: http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/texts/hobbes/leviathan-c.html
    University of Adelaide: http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/h/hobbes/thomas/h68l/chapter14.html
    Florida International University: http://www2.fiu.edu/~hauptli/HobbesLeviathanForPHH2063.html
    University of Central Florida: http://pegasus.cc.ucf.edu/~stanlick/equality3.html
11. University of Adelaide: http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/h/hobbes/thomas/h68l/chapter21.html
    University of Notre Dame: http://ndpr.nd.edu/news/23649-hobbes-and-republican-liberty/
    Temple University: http://astro.temple.edu/~dmg33/Art_files/hobbes_xxi.pdf
    Hanover College: http://history.hanover.edu/courses/excerpts/111hob2.html
12. Iowa State University: http://www.public.iastate.edu/~jwcwolf/Papers/ROUSS.HTM
13. University of Adelaide: http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/h/hobbes/thomas/h68l/chapter11.html
    Oregon State University: http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/texts/hobbes/leviathan-contents.html
    University of Virginia: http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/toc/modeng/public/HobLev2.html
14. Hanover College: http://history.hanover.edu/courses/excerpts/111hob2.html
    Oregon State University: http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/texts/hobbes/leviathan-c.html
15. Oregon State University: http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/texts/hobbes/leviathan-c.html
    Hanover College: http://history.hanover.edu/courses/excerpts/111hob.html
16. Oregon State University: http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/texts/hobbes/leviathan-c.html
17. University of North Texas: http://texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth47669/m1/2/
18. Oregon State University: http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/texts/hobbes/leviathan-c.html
    Smithsonian American Art Museum: http://americanart.si.edu/collections/search/artwork/?id=13314
    California State University Northbridge: http://www.csun.edu/~sk36711/WWW/456/RochesterBehnAstell.html
    Gonzaga University: http://guweb2.gonzaga.edu/faculty/mcreynolds/phil463/informationalism/peace.html
    Institute for Advanced Study: http://www.ias.edu/articles/reign-of-terror
    Hanover College: http://history.hanover.edu/courses/excerpts/111hob.html
19. Oregon State University: http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/texts/hobbes/leviathan-c.html
    Smithsonian American Art Museum: http://americanart.si.edu/collections/search/artwork/?id=13314
    California State University Northbridge: http://www.csun.edu/~sk36711/WWW/456/RochesterBehnAstell.html
    Gonzaga University: http://guweb2.gonzaga.edu/faculty/mcreynolds/phil463/informationalism/peace.html
    Institute for Advanced Study: http://www.ias.edu/articles/reign-of-terror
    Hanover College: http://history.hanover.edu/courses/excerpts/111hob.html

The Developing World

Greenhouse gas emissions dipped from 6.79 billion tons in 2010 to 6.67 billion in 2011, 7 percent below their 2005 emissions, in the United States; and fell by 3.3 percent to 18.5 percent below 1990 levels, for a cut of 20 percent by 2020, in the European Union. “For the United States, it’s mainly a shift from coal to gas power plants.” Said Center for International Climate and Environmental Research Steffen Kallbekken. “For Europe it’s primarily weak economic activity.” [4] Almost half of the United States’ climate finance came from the Overseas Private Investment Corporation and the Export-Import Bank of the United States in 2012 (only 20% in 2010). [9] Forty-two industrialized nations’ combined greenhouse gas emission dipped .7 percent from 17.2 billion tons in 2010 to 17.1 billion in 2011, down 6.4 percent from 1990 levels. [4]

“The LDCs are no longer waiting for others to act.” Said Quamrul Chowdury, lead climate negotiator for the 49-strong group of Least Developed Countries. [14] [16] “It is time we shaped the agenda and the decisions, instead of having them shaped for us.” Said Least Developed Countries bloc chair Prakash Mathema. [20] “Prakash Mathema, the current chair of the LDCs in the climate negotiations, has a new mantra: “Follow us”.” Chowdury said. “That means the 49 LDCs under his leadership are set to act in the process as a very pro-active group.” [14] “Developing countries are saying it needs a new negotiating track, which means action, not just more discussions.” Said London’s International Institute for Environment and Development Senior Fellow Saleemul Huq. “This would be a continuation of the strengthening of the LDCs, which have made some substantial moves in terms of becoming much more involved in the U.N. process and in their dialogue with the European Union and other countries that seem to be more ambitious in tackling climate change.” Said Bonn-based advocacy group Germanwatch’s Sven Harmeling. [20] 
“They are even ready to go first in helping to cut back global greenhouse gas emissions, though they are the ones least responsible for increasing those emissions.” Chowdury said. [14] [16] “At the present time, developing countries are left to cover the costs of loss and damage from climate impacts that are not of their making.” Alliance of Small Island States deputy lead negotiator Malia Talakai said. “Developing countries are the victims of climate change. Climate changes are due to unrestricted emissions by developed countries in their process of industrialization.” Head of the Chinese Delegation at the Doha climate talks Xie Zhenhua responded. “If we want to devise a long-term goal on emissions reduction by 2015, it is inevitable that we will have to find a way to allocate emissions.” “Climate Change is ultimately a question of justice and those who have contributed most should assume responsibility in solving the problem.” University of Reading School of Human Environmental Sciences’ Doctor Chuks Okereke said. “There is a deep inequity in that rich countries grew wealthy on high-carbon growth and poor countries will be hit particularly hard by climate change.” Former World Bank Chief Economist Lord Nicholas Stern said. [18] “At least to some extent, the rich nations have developed at the expense of the poor and, in effect, there is a debt to the poor.” Said University of California Berkeley ecological economist Professor Richard Norgaard. “Climate change is caused by rich people wherever they live and suffered by poor people wherever they live.” Said New York University environmental ethicist Dale Jamieson. “The science has plainly made it clear: It is human beings’ behavior which caused climate change, therefore the solution must come from us.” United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki-Moon responded. “The climate change phenomenon has been caused by the industrialization of the developed world. It is only fair and reasonable that the developed world should bear most of the responsibility.” [1] “It must be pointed out that climate change has been caused by the long-term historic emissions of developed countries and their high per-capita emissions.” Foreign Ministry spokeswoman Jiang Yu said.“I think the LDCs are now for low carbon pathways for all.”Chowdury added. [14] [16] “All countries should commit to accepting cuts, but developing countries’ National Appropriate Mitigation Actions should be supported.” Said Chowdury. [14] “The U.N. Climate Convention also recognizes our special circumstances and gives us flexibility with regard to mitigation actions.” Mathema said. [20] “The LDCs are for raising ambitions over climate change mitigation, because mitigation is the ultimate adaptation.” Chowdury added. [14] “It is precisely because of inaction by wealthy countries that we have transcended the era of mitigation and adaptation—we are now in the era of loss and damage.” Seychelles ambassador Ronald Jumeau said. “To rectify and redress the situation, developed countries have an urgent legal and moral obligation to undertake urgent and dramatic mitigation action. They must also provide enhanced support for prevention and avoidance of loss and damage, as well as compensation and rehabilitation for loss and damage caused by both their action and inaction.” “Rich countries will need to do more than poor countries.” European Union climate action commissioner Connie Hedegaard said. “But all of us will have to do the maximum we can because otherwise we can’t cope with climate change.” [1]“If we had more ambition on emissions cuts from rich countries, we would not have to ask for so much money for adaptation.” Jumeau scolded. [9] “The cost of adaptation is also rising every day as the most industrialized countries are not slashing their emission, except for some of the European good boys.” Chowdury added. [14] “There is a serious risk that countries will lock in high-carbon infrastructure now, which will make it more difficult and expensive to reduce emissions over the next few decades.” London School of Economics Grantham Research Institute on Climate change chair Lord Stern of Brentford said. [10] “As LDCs have low emissions and lack capacity, binding emissions reduction will put additional burden on them and affect their efforts in poverty reduction and sustainable development.” Mathema said. [20] “Developing countries have to make all the difficult choices about adapting their infrastructure to climate change and these are also very expensive choices.” Bangladeshi Foreign Minister Dipu Moni said. “We have been lumped along with big emitters in the same category as other developing countries that have much bigger economies. But we and the most vulnerable countries and the least developed countries should be in a different category. We are vulnerable countries, and we are being marginalized.” [10]Companies based in developed countries spent close to $13 billion in support of climate projects in developing nations. [9] Total global investment in clean energy grew by 30% to $211 billion–developing countries representing $72 billion in spending—in 2010. [15] “Regarding emissions cuts, it think we have a long way before reaching a conclusion, given the stalemate position of the developed nations and also some others.” Chowdury said. [20] Experts estimate that truly comprehensive action on climate will require $700 billion per year of additional climate-related investment in developing countries. [9]“Despite this, some individual LDCS are showing great leadership in preparing and implementing low-carbon development strategies.” Mathema added. [20]

1. The Associated Press. “Rich Nations To Blame For Climate Change, Says UN Chief”. CBC News. December 5, 2012. http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/story/2012/12/05/climate-change-un-ban-ki-moon.html 
2. “Climate Change Deal must include Major Economies”. The Telegraph. November 24, 2011. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/environment/climatechange/8231708/Climate-change-deal-must-include-major-economies.html 
3. Cohen, Tamarah. “Countries Must Work Together To Tackle Climate Change, Huhne Tells World Leaders At Energy Summit”. Daily Mail. December 9, 2011. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2071751/Climate-change-conference-Durban-Chris-Huhne-says-countries-work-together.html 
4. Doyle, Alister. “Industrialized Nations’ Greenhouse Gas Emissions Dipped In 2011”. Reuters. Friday April 26, 2013. http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/04/26/us-climate-emissions-idUSBRE93P0HZ20130426 
5. Friedman, Lisa. “Poorer Nations Demand More Aid To Deal With Climate Change”. Scientific American. November 28, 2012. http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=poorer-nations-demand-more-aid-to-deal-with-climate-change 
6. Friedman, Lisa. “Which Nations Are Most Vulnerable To Climate Change? The Daunting Politics of Choosing”. The New York Times. February 24, 2011. http://www.nytimes.com/cwire/2011/02/24/24climatewire-which-nations-are-most-vulnerable-to-climate-95690.html?pagewanted=all 
7. Gore, Tim. “The Durban Climate Deal Failed To Meet The Needs Of The Developing World”. The Guardian. Monday December 12, 2011. http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/poverty-matters/2011/dec/12/durban-climate-deal-developing-world 
8. Graaf, Reinier. “Tackling Climate Change Still A Luxury In Developing World”. CNN. August 17, 2011. http://www.cnn.com/2011/OPINION/08/17/graaf.climate.change.bind/index.html 
9. Jones, Abigail, and Wolosin, Michael. “Developed Countries Increasingly Look To The Private Sector For Climate Finance”. Center For American Progress. April 23, 2013. http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2013/04/23/1910111/developed-countries-increasingly-look-to-the-private-sector-for-climate-finance/ 
10. Harvey, Fiona. “Developed World Failing On Climate Funds Pledge, Says Bangladeshi Minister”. The Guardian. Monday January 2, 2012. http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2012/jan/02/climate-change-funds-bangladesh-moni 
11. Harvey, Fiona. “Doha Climate Change Deal Clears Way for “Damage Aid” To Poor Nations”. The Observer. Saturday December 8, 2012. http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2012/dec/08/doha-climate-change-deal-nations 
12. Harvey, Fiona. “UN Chiefs Slams Rich Nations’ Plans to delay Climate change Treaty”. The Guardian. Wednesday November 23, 2011. http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2011/nov/23/un-chief-rich-nations-climate-change 
13. Huq, Saleemul. “Poor And Vulnerable Countries Are Defying Climate Inaction”. The Guardian. Monday November 7, 2011. http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2011/nov/07/developing-countries-climate-action 
14. Kirby, Alex. “Least Developed Countries Agree To Cut Greenhouse Gas Emissions”. The Guardian. April 3, 2013. http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2013/apr/03/climate-change-greenhouse-gas-emissions 
15. Lacey, Stephen. “Industrialized Countries Are Now Losing The Clean Energy Race.” Center For American Progress. July 8, 2011. http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2011/07/08/263963/industrialized-countries-are-now-losing-the-clean-energy-race/ 
16. Lean, Geoffrey. “Poorest Countries Seek To Shame The Rich By Saying They Are “Ready To Go First” In Tackling Climate Change”. The Telegraph. April 3, 2013. http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/news/geoffreylean/100210070/poorest-countries-seek-to-shame-the-rich-by-saying-they-are-ready-to-go-first-in-tackling-climate-change/ 
17. Lynas, Mark. “A Meaningful Durban Treaty Would Be A Triumph Of Weak Over Strong”. The Guardian. Friday November 25, 2011. http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2011/nov/25/meaningful-durban-treaty-weak-strong
18. Roux, Marriette. “Rich Nations Alone Can’t Halt Global Warming—Report”. Agence France-Presse. Tuesday December 4, 2012. http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5j98HqUGojlAMbvTwaGxCjbOjtNEg 
19. Rowling, Megan. “Doha Delivers Little For Poor, Climate-Hit States”. Thomson Reuters Foundation. Monday December 10, 2012. http://www.trust.org/item/?map=doha-delivers-little-for-climate-vulnerable-states 
20. Rowling, Megan. “Poorest Nations Show Low-Carbon Will In Climate Talks.” Thomson Reuters Foundation. Friday April 26, 2013. http://www.trust.org/item/20130426134446-vg28n/?source=hpeditorial 
21. Sachs, Jeffrey. “How to Make Rich Countries Pay for Climate Change”. The Financial Times. October 23, 2012. http://blogs.ft.com/the-a-list/2012/10/23/how-to-make-rich-countries-pay-for-climate-change/#axzz2Rzggz7Km 
22. Vidal, John. “Frustration over Lack of Climate Cash for Poor Countries Rises in Qatar”. The Guardian. Wednesday December 5, 2012. http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2012/dec/05/frustration-climate-poor-countries-qatar 
23. Vidal, John. “At Durban, The Big Emitters Will No Doubt Fail Us Again On Climate Change”. The Guardian. Thursday November 24, 2011. http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2011/nov/24/durban-big-emitters-fail-climate-change 
24. Vidal, John. “Western Nations “Used Bullying Tactics” At Climate Talks”. The Observer. Saturday November 26, 2011. http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2011/nov/26/climate-change-talks-durban